{"id":528,"date":"2018-08-08T01:43:03","date_gmt":"2018-08-08T01:43:03","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/?p=528"},"modified":"2023-08-02T16:05:29","modified_gmt":"2023-08-02T16:05:29","slug":"how-did-the-pawtucket-make-sense-of-their-world","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/index.php\/how-did-the-pawtucket-make-sense-of-their-world\/","title":{"rendered":"How Did the Pawtucket Make Sense of Their World?"},"content":{"rendered":"<div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_82_2 ez-toc-wrap-center counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-custom ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title\" style=\"cursor:inherit\">Page Contents<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" aria-label=\"Toggle Table of Content\"><span class=\"ez-toc-js-icon-con\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #000000;color:#000000\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #000000;color:#000000\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/index.php\/how-did-the-pawtucket-make-sense-of-their-world\/#The_Algonquian_Cosmos\" >The Algonquian Cosmos<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/index.php\/how-did-the-pawtucket-make-sense-of-their-world\/#Manitou\" >Manitou<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/index.php\/how-did-the-pawtucket-make-sense-of-their-world\/#Algonquian_Thanksgiving\" >Algonquian Thanksgiving<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/index.php\/how-did-the-pawtucket-make-sense-of-their-world\/#Among_the_Stones\" >Among the Stones<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/index.php\/how-did-the-pawtucket-make-sense-of-their-world\/#Culture_Heros\" >Culture Heros<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/index.php\/how-did-the-pawtucket-make-sense-of-their-world\/#In_the_Beginning\" >In the Beginning<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/index.php\/how-did-the-pawtucket-make-sense-of-their-world\/#Life_and_Death\" >Life and Death<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-8\" href=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/index.php\/how-did-the-pawtucket-make-sense-of-their-world\/#Mounds_and_Chambers_in_Massachusetts\" >Mounds and Chambers in Massachusetts<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-9\" href=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/index.php\/how-did-the-pawtucket-make-sense-of-their-world\/#Mourning_Paint\" >Mourning Paint<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-10\" href=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/index.php\/how-did-the-pawtucket-make-sense-of-their-world\/#Notes_and_References\" >Notes and References<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n<p>The Algonquians were matter-of-fact, even sanguine, about matters of life and death\u2014and as red in tooth and claw, so to speak, as their prey and their human enemies. Nevertheless, their burials and totems and other practices attest to their beliefs in a positive afterlife and a vast spirit world overseen by higher powers, one of which was called by many Gitchi Manitou or Great Spirit. People, animals, rocks, spirits, and everything in nature were endowed with innate manna-like spiritual power (manitou, or <em>manit\u00f4k <\/em>or <em>manidoo<\/em>). That power could increase or decrease, be transferred, cause physical transformations, and work magically for good or bad. These beliefs shaped people\u2019s body images and identities, their relationships with each other, and their behavior toward others, nature, and the land. I think these beliefs are the whole reason behind the incredible mismatch between them and the Europeans, equally driven by their beliefs. Thus, I lay their ultimate mutual failure in cultural contact at the feet of religion (if such a metaphor can be entertained), and some other historians would agree. The earliest Indian wars against European missionaries and settlers were as much attacks on Christianity as efforts to reclaim territory [1].<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_Algonquian_Cosmos\"><\/span>The Algonquian Cosmos<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Algonquians believed in a three-part intersecting universe, with an upperworld (skyworld), earth (Turtle Island), and a lowerworld (waterworld). According to various ethnological and ethnohistorical accounts, god-like beings, demi-gods, ancestors, demons, spirits, giants, and elf- or troll-like creatures called Little People inhabited these worlds along with (or in) the people, plants, animals, landforms, stars, and natural phenomena. In addition to having manitou, everything identified as \u201canimate\u201d was anthropomorphized, and this included trees and rocks. Talking to the wind, reading animal encounters as omens, acting on dreams, hiding from meteor showers, seeking transformation through spirit possession, and leaving offerings at cracks in bedrock would all have been completely normal. The universe was alive in every way, and it was always possible that you couldn\u2019t believe your eyes&#8211;that nothing was what it seemed. Algonquians lived magic realism in real time, time that continually curved and recurved in coils and circles, for Native Americans lived in a nonlinear multiverse. Europeans\u2019 superstitions were no match, and Europeans ultimately lived in a post-Enlightenment empirical world of cause and effect\u2014a linear world of beginnings, middles, and ends\u2014a world where things were expected to be rational, and where monotheism and religious dogma had the power to simplify everything\u2014a world that could be divided, commodified, and owned in perpetuity [2].<\/p>\n<p>Algonquians did not at first grasp the idea that land and resources could be commodified and exchanged, any more than we at first understood how cubic feet of air over highways could be bought and sold for commercial development. Land and resources belong to Earth, which belongs to everyone. Early Indian deeds to farmsteads were understood as usufruct&#8211;with rights of usage during the settler&#8217;s life, but later deeds contain carefully worded riders preserving essential resource procurement areas for Indigenous use, such as &#8220;Roger&#8217;s Brook&#8221; and &#8220;Will&#8217;s Hill&#8221;.<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Manitou\"><\/span>Manitou<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Algonquians believed that supernatural beings and forces governed every aspect of the natural world. The sun, moon, stars, thunder, rain, springs, trees, rocks, plants, animals\u2014other things, conditions, and events designated as \u201calive\u201d\u2014all had both consciousness, the ability to communicate to people, and spiritual power&#8211;manitou. Shamans invoked and channeled or repelled this manitou as needed as they mediated between people and the spirit world.<\/p>\n<p>Anthropologists call this belief in a spirit world <em>animism <\/em>and in nature\u2019s consciousness as <em>animatism<\/em>. Algonquian spiritualism included belief in all forms of magic and the practice of sorcery or witchcraft. The shaman\u2019s ritual paraphernalia used in sorcery&#8211;which included quartz crystals, polished gemstones, the bones of small animals, tobacco, and other mind-altering substances&#8211;were carried in a &#8220;medicine bag&#8221; and kept secret. The celebrated Native American culture of respect for all things can be seen as essentially born of fear and uncertainty in the face of a multi-faceted, all-powerful, and unpredictable supernatural world [3].<\/p>\n<p><strong>A Small Sample of Algonquian Spirits <\/strong>[4]<\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\"><strong>Algonquian Name<\/strong><\/td>\n<td width=\"293\"><strong>English Translation<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Kautantowit; Cautantowwit<\/p>\n<p>(also Keihtanit, Keihtan)<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Great Spirit, place of Great Spirit (Giver of corn, squash, and beans)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Manit, Manitou (Manitoo); Manittoowock; Manitoog (plural)<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Spirit; Spirits, gods<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Nammanittoom<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">My Spirit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Nuttauquand<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Spirit of My People<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Keesuckquand<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Sun Spirit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Kesuckanit<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">God of Day<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Nanepaushat<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Moon Spirit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Chekesuwand<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">West Spirit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Womopanand<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">East Spirit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Wunnanameanit<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">North Spirit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Sowwanand<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">South Spirit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Squauanit<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Woman\u2019s Spirit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Muckquachuckquand<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Children\u2019s Spirit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Paumpagussit<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Sea Spirit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Abbomocho (Hobbomock, Chepi)<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Healing Spirit; Death Spirit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Yotaanit<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Fire Spirit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Nashauanit<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Spirit of the Creator<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Woonand (Wunnand; Woonanit)<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Spirit of Goodness<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Mattand (Mattanit<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Spirit of\u00a0Evil<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Nisquanem<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Spirit of Mercy<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Mosquand<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Bear Spirit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Psukand<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Bird Spirit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Tunnuppaquand<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Turtle Spirit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Nimbauwand<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Thunder Spirit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Hussunnand<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Stone Spirit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Askuquand<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Snake Spirit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Seipanit<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">River Spirit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Cowawand<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Pine Tree Spirit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Ohomousanit<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Owl Spirit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Moosanit<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Moose Spirit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"235\">Quequananit<\/td>\n<td width=\"293\">Earthquake Spirit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Shamans also were involved in keeping time for the Algonquian ceremonial calendar, and remains of these calendars may still be seen in boulder fields in New England landscapes. These ceremonial landscapes reflect the solar, lunar, and astral cycles by which people tracked ceremonial time. They are manipulated landscapes in which boulders and false horizons mark observation posts, sightlines, and alignments to skyworld events. There is a native solar observatory on Pole Hill in Riverview, Gloucester, for example, with reference rocks and sightlines for the summer solstice sunrise and sunset, the winter solstice sunrise and sunset, the spring and fall equinoxes, and other astronomical events, such as the traverse of <em>Ursa major <\/em>through the winter night sky. The observatory was first built by Late Archaics or Early Woodland peoples around 3 thousand years ago, and further modified by later peoples, with the sighting stones organized around a central reference point on the north-south aligned axis. The cardinal directions (north, south, east, west) were central concepts in Algonquian cosmology, practice of medicine, village planning, burial practices, and use of divination [5].<\/p>\n<p><em>Pole Hill Solar Observatory and Calendar<\/em><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-530\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.1a-300x186.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"476\" height=\"295\" srcset=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.1a-300x186.jpg 300w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.1a.jpg 731w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 476px) 100vw, 476px\" \/><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-529\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.1c-300x188.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"471\" height=\"295\" srcset=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.1c-300x188.jpg 300w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.1c-768x480.jpg 768w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.1c-1024x640.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.1c-1200x750.jpg 1200w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.1c.jpg 1280w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 471px) 100vw, 471px\" \/><\/p>\n<p>As in ancient Southwestern, Mexican, Mesoamerican and South American societies, observed movements of the sun, moon, and stars in their skyworld cycles guided the spiritual life of the community. In New England, for example, when the Milky Way touches the horizon the spirits of the deceased can find their way to the skyworld on the starry path under a nearby constellation\u2019s protection from underworld spirits. Astronomical observations also guided the community\u2019s seasonal activities, such as the bear sacrifice in winter, the New Year\u2019s celebration in spring, thanksgiving for the first harvest of green corn in mid-summer, and celebration of the last harvest before fall\u2019s first frost [6].<\/p>\n<p><em>Milky Way Pathway for the Ancestors and the Ursa Major Asterism<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em> \u00a0<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-552\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/530f9a52ecad04c17c2a450c-750-494-300x198.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"329\" height=\"217\" srcset=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/530f9a52ecad04c17c2a450c-750-494-300x198.jpg 300w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/530f9a52ecad04c17c2a450c-750-494.jpg 750w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 329px) 100vw, 329px\" \/> <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-1508\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/bear-constellation-300x194.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"332\" height=\"215\" srcset=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/bear-constellation-300x194.jpg 300w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/bear-constellation-768x495.jpg 768w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/bear-constellation-850x548.jpg 850w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/bear-constellation.jpg 1000w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 332px) 100vw, 332px\" \/><\/em><\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Algonquian_Thanksgiving\"><\/span><strong>Algonquian Thanksgiving<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Colonists in Virginia observed Algonquians \u201cdancing around posts\u201d each fall, with gourd rattles and leaves or branches, each dancer taking a turn to present a sheaf and make a short speech. Each post likely represented a harvest month\u2014April through October, with each dancer singing the praises of the spirit responsible for a particular food plant or other natural resource harvested during that month in the annual cycle.<\/p>\n<p><em>Algonquian Thanksgiving<\/em><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-547 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/22Indians-dancing-around-a-circle22-John-White-1590-300x241.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"495\" height=\"398\" srcset=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/22Indians-dancing-around-a-circle22-John-White-1590-300x241.jpg 300w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/22Indians-dancing-around-a-circle22-John-White-1590-768x617.jpg 768w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/22Indians-dancing-around-a-circle22-John-White-1590.jpg 797w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 495px) 100vw, 495px\" \/><\/p>\n<p>The naked figure in the center of the \u201cThanksgiving\u201d depiction with the two women is very likely the shaman, and perhaps the grouping represents the concept of fecundity over all [7]. Thanksgivings as feast days were a Native American tradition that the Pilgrims recognized or adopted in a kind of syncretism, blending the Christian tradition of giving thanks to God for one\u2019s daily bread with the pagan harvest festivals of Neolithic Europe and the Native American tradition of giving thanks to the spirits for the fruits of their seasonal harvests. In Plymouth, Massachusetts, today, the \u201cFirst Thanksgiving\u201d is commemorated from the Native American point of view in light of history, in a plaque proclaiming it as a National Day of Mourning.<\/p>\n<p>The true circumstances of the &#8220;First Thanksgiving&#8221; belie the tale we older folk learned in school about turkeys and pies and brotherhood between Indians and settlers. Forgive me if I am repeating myself here, but there were no turkeys or pies, but swans and geese and potatoes. It was Massasoit&#8217;s 92 warriors who hunted deer to supply the feast with meat. Upon hearing a volley of the colonists&#8217; guns, fired in salute, the Wampanoag had arrived at Plimoth Plantation\u00a0 prepared for possible combat.<\/p>\n<p><em>\u00a0National Day of Mourning<\/em><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-532 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.3b-300x229.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"426\" height=\"325\" srcset=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.3b-300x229.jpg 300w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.3b.jpg 536w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 426px) 100vw, 426px\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Observations of the moon\u2019s cycles were also important. The Algonquian solar calendar was 13 months of 28 days, while the lunar calendar was 12 lunations of 29 days. The solar and lunar calendars were reconciled by observing at 11-day intervals. Eleven days denotes the difference between the length of the solar year and the 12 lunations, and that difference can be used to predict in advance when a leap month (or 13<sup>th<\/sup>month) was needed [8].<\/p>\n<p><strong>Algonquian Lunar Calendar<\/strong><\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"112\"><strong>POSITION<\/strong><\/td>\n<td width=\"109\"><strong>MONTH<\/strong><\/td>\n<td width=\"140\"><strong>ENGLISH<\/strong><\/td>\n<td width=\"216\"><strong>ALGONQUIAN<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"112\">Early Winter<\/td>\n<td width=\"109\">January<\/td>\n<td width=\"140\">Old Moon, Moon after Yule<\/td>\n<td width=\"216\">Wolf Moon, Ice Moon, Greeting Maker Moon, Forgiveness Moon<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"112\">Mid-Winter<\/td>\n<td width=\"109\">February<\/td>\n<td width=\"140\">Wolf Moon, Candles Moon<\/td>\n<td width=\"216\">Snow Moon, Hunger Moon, Storm Moon, Breaking Branches Moon<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"112\">Late Winter<\/td>\n<td width=\"109\">March<\/td>\n<td width=\"140\">Lenten Moon, Chaste Moon<\/td>\n<td width=\"216\">Worm Moon, Crow Moon, Sugar Moon, Sap Moon, Death Moon, Moose Moon, Spring Maker Moon<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"4\" width=\"577\">VERNAL EQUINOX: Day and night equal in length; start of growing season.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"112\">Early Spring<\/td>\n<td width=\"109\">April<\/td>\n<td width=\"140\">Egg Moon<\/td>\n<td width=\"216\">Pink Moon, Sprouting Grass Moon, Fish Moon, Seed Moon, Waking Moon, Birds Returning Moon, Sugar Maker Moon<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"112\">Mid-Spring<\/td>\n<td width=\"109\">May<\/td>\n<td width=\"140\">Milk Moon<\/td>\n<td width=\"216\">Flower Moon, Corn Planting Moon, Hare\u2019s Moon, Earth Moon, Field Maker Moon<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"112\">Late Spring<\/td>\n<td width=\"109\">June<\/td>\n<td width=\"140\">Flower Moon, Rose Moon<\/td>\n<td width=\"216\">Strawberry Moon, Honey Moon, Planting Moon, Hoer Moon<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"4\" width=\"577\">SUMMER SOLSTICE: Days longer than nights; height of growing season.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"112\">Early Summer<\/td>\n<td width=\"109\">July<\/td>\n<td width=\"140\">Hay Moon, Mead Moon<\/td>\n<td width=\"216\">Buck Moon, Thunder Moon, Grass Cutter Moon, Blueberry Maker Moon<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"112\">Mid-Summer<\/td>\n<td width=\"109\">August<\/td>\n<td width=\"140\">Grain Moon<\/td>\n<td width=\"216\">Sturgeon Moon, Red Moon, Green Corn Moon, Dog Moon, Lightning Moon, Meal Maker Moon<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"112\">Late Summer<\/td>\n<td width=\"109\">September<\/td>\n<td width=\"140\">Fruit Moon, Barley Moon<\/td>\n<td width=\"216\">Harvest Moon, Corn Moon, Corn Maker Moon<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"4\" width=\"577\">AUTUMNAL EQUINOX: Day and night equal in length; end of growing season.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"112\">Early Fall<\/td>\n<td width=\"109\">October<\/td>\n<td width=\"140\">Harvest Moon<\/td>\n<td width=\"216\">Hunter\u2019s Moon, Travel Moon, Dying Grass Moon, Blood Moon, Falling Leaves Moon<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"112\">Mid-Fall<\/td>\n<td width=\"109\">November<\/td>\n<td width=\"140\">Hunter\u2019s Moon<\/td>\n<td width=\"216\">Beaver\u2019s Moon, Frost Moon, First Snow Moon, Freezing River Maker Moon<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"112\">Late Fall<\/td>\n<td width=\"109\">December<\/td>\n<td width=\"140\">Oak Moon, Moon Before Yule<\/td>\n<td width=\"216\">Cold Moon, Long Night\u2019s Moon, Winter Maker Moon<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"4\" width=\"577\">WINTER SOLSTICE: Nights longer than days; height of winter.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Among_the_Stones\"><\/span>Among the Stones<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Places like Pole Hill were ceremonial landscapes besides, with glacial erratics modified into effigy stones as objects of veneration, and other stones split, piled, or moved to invite or bar spirits or to make enclosures as sacred spaces. These were objects and places where observers watched the sky, shamans meditated, people gathered for ceremonies, and the young made spirit quests and dreamed dreams. Dreams and the waking dreams called vision quests were achieved through fasting, smoking or ingesting hallucinogenic substances, exposure to the elements, and dehydration.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-539 alignleft\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.6b-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"415\" height=\"276\" srcset=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.6b-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.6b.jpg 575w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 415px) 100vw, 415px\" \/>Shamans rocked boulders balanced on bedrock to make a loud noise and shake the earth, announcing messages from spirits and perhaps scaring or thrilling young initiates wandering around in search of their personal totems. Stones were a medium of spiritual expression.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-549 alignleft\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/pigeon-hill-rocks-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"325\" height=\"243\" srcset=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/pigeon-hill-rocks-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/pigeon-hill-rocks-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/pigeon-hill-rocks-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/pigeon-hill-rocks-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/pigeon-hill-rocks.jpg 1280w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 325px) 100vw, 325px\" \/><\/p>\n<p>People passing by a place respectfully dropped a stone where an important event had occurred in the life of the community\u2014an act of bravery or sacrifice, a treaty or trade agreement, a tragedy or mystery\u2014creating over time great stone cairns [9]. I wrote a two-part article on the subject of &#8220;spirit rocks&#8221; on Cape Ann, published in volumes 55 (1) Autumn 2022 and 55 (2), Winter 2022-2023 in the Journal of the New England Antiquities Research Association.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><em>Examples of possible effigy stones on Cape Ann (Ravenswood, Dogtown, Andrews Woods, Pole Hill)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-535 alignleft\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.4d-300x224.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"224\" srcset=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.4d-300x224.jpg 300w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.4d.jpg 550w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-534 alignleft\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.4b-300x198.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"310\" height=\"205\" srcset=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.4b-300x198.png 300w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.4b.png 431w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 310px) 100vw, 310px\" \/>It cannot be denied that Native Americans in New England intentionally raised, perched, piled, stacked, balanced, rocked, carved, inscribed, split, and wedged- open rocks for symbolic and practical purposes. However, the provenance and authenticity of rock piles we see today are uncertain. Some were formed by retreating glaciers, modified by colonists or modern developers, or even created by townies and tourists over the past 300 years. Skeptics have claimed that only Europeans (Vikings, Celts, or English colonists)\u2014or aliens from outer space\u2014had the technology to move such massive boulders, much as Egyptians were believed to have been incapable of building their pyramids or Easter Islanders of erecting their <em>moai <\/em>(giant stone heads). But archaeologists have confirmed many stone constructions as authentically Native American, and, of course, they could use the laws of gravity and motion as well as any human to make megaliths or move mountains. The Megaliths in Manchester-by-the-Sea may have been tilted up during glacial retreat, but they would have had spiritual significance to Indigenous people interacting with them. [10]. <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-533 alignleft\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.4a-300x180.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"317\" height=\"190\" srcset=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.4a-300x180.jpg 300w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.4a.jpg 700w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 317px) 100vw, 317px\" \/><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-548\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Erratic-in-andrews-woods-copy-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"305\" height=\"229\" srcset=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Erratic-in-andrews-woods-copy-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Erratic-in-andrews-woods-copy.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 305px) 100vw, 305px\" \/><\/p>\n<p><em>The Megaliths (formerly Agassiz Rock)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-537 alignleft\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.5b-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"291\" height=\"194\" srcset=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.5b-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.5b.jpg 720w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 291px) 100vw, 291px\" \/>\u00a0<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-536\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.5a-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"263\" height=\"197\" srcset=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.5a-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.5a-768x577.jpg 768w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.5a-1024x769.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.5a-1200x902.jpg 1200w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.5a.jpg 1600w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 263px) 100vw, 263px\" \/><\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Culture_Heros\"><\/span>Culture Heros<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Algonquian cosmology and astrology are supported by stories and legends (some would say myths, to which some Indigenous People today would object), like the story of the three hunters (and their dog) chasing the sky bear and wounding it, its blood causing the leaves to turn red in fall, and the bear recovering in hibernation until the stars rise again in spring. In some versions the bear dies and its cub emerges from the den to renew the cycle of the circumpolar stars. Other stories feature tricksters and transformers\u2014powerful beings and culture heroes, such as Gluscap (Glooskap, Kluscabi), who, along with the Great Spirit, created the earth, caused the origins of all things, instructed the animals, outwitted harmful spirits, kept nature in balance, and taught people how to adapt. Great respect was accorded to creatures able to transform themselves\u2014shape-shifters&#8211;such as butterflies and frogs.<\/p>\n<p><em>Glooscap with the Animals, Glooscap Heritage Center, Millbrook, Nova Scotia<\/em><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-551 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Museum-Glooscap-300x246.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"531\" height=\"435\" srcset=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Museum-Glooscap-300x246.jpg 300w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Museum-Glooscap-768x631.jpg 768w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Museum-Glooscap.jpg 974w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 531px) 100vw, 531px\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Culture heroes included the giant, Hobomoc, who broke the Great Beaver&#8217;s dam, which flooded the valleys with water from the melting glacier at the end of the last Ice Age, and Wittun, who caused fresh water to come forth from rocks on the ridge lines to heal the valleys so people live there.<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"In_the_Beginning\"><\/span>In the Beginning<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Algonquian creation stories illustrate how the people came to terms with a natural and supernatural world they saw as imperfect and irrational (or disappointing and crazy), a conclusion completely opposite from that drawn by Puritans, in which a monotheistic god had intentionally created perfect order in the universe. Missionaries elevated Gitchi Manitou, the Great Spirit, to stand alone for the Christian god and his son and the holy ghost, much to everyone&#8217;s consternation. The possible return of someone from the dead&#8211;a ghost&#8211;was much feared. While possibly revealing missionary influences, Indigenous creation stories nevertheless contrast in interesting ways with the Judeo-Christian origin myth represented in Genesis [11].<\/p>\n<p>Here is an abridged version of the Algonquian creation myth in which Manito creates the world on the back of a turtle, collected by an ethnographer in 1949. The Abenaki teller of the creation story prefaced it as follows [12]:<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\"><em>In my dream, I awakened, I turned to my side and saw the morning sun shining through a dew-covered spider web. So beautiful it was! It was filled with sparkling color, a million tiny lights in a hand\u2019s breadth. A black and yellow spider was busy repairing a tear in the web from an insect that got away. The spider stopped and stared at me. It spoke to me in a tiny little voice and said, \u201cThis is a Dream Net. It only lets good dreams through. This hole was left by the dream you are dreaming now!\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">Maheo, the Great Manito, Creator, became tired of the endless silence and darkness at the beginning of time. He wished to fill endless space with light and the joyful movement of life. Out of his great hands flew the sparks of the creation fire, filling endless space with light. He bid Mikchich, the Great Turtle, to emerge from the water and become land. With his strong hands he molded a creation world with mountains and valleys. He put the waters all where they should be and set white clouds sailing in the blue sky. Then, the Manito looked at all this and said to himself, \u201cThis is the creation world I want. Now I will fill this place with the happy movement of life.\u201d<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The Great Manito thought about what kind of life he would make. He carefully considered how he would make a perfect web of life with each creature just so and in perfect place. Each should have a perfect way of life and all would be happy. Long into that last night before creation began, the Manito thought out a perfect plan, and then he fell asleep, exhausted. Soundly did he sleep, and his sleep was filled with dreams. Strange dreams he had.<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The Great Manito dreamed of a strange creation world, filled with strange beings, not at all what he had planned. They walked on four legs, some on two. Some creatures crawled, some flew with wings. Some of these swam with fins. There were plants spreading out, covering the ground everywhere. Insects buzzed, geese honked, and moose bellowed. Men sang and called to each other in this strange dream. This was a world with no design at all, no order. This was a bad dream. No world of creation could be this imperfect, this mad!<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 And then the Great Manito awakened to see a porcupine nibbling on a twig. To his dismay he realized the world of his dream had become Creation!<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Thus, even for gods, dreams could come true. Interpreting dreams, along with assisting the healer, were among the shaman&#8217;s chief duties. Dreamcatchers were replications of the proverbial spider\u2019s web and were woven, decorated, and hung as objects of individual expression. Small dreamcatchers were hung on cradleboard frames in front of babies\u2019 faces to ensure they had pleasant dreams.<\/p>\n<p><em>Dreamcatcher<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-541 alignleft\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.7-Dreamcatcher-160x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"160\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.7-Dreamcatcher-160x300.jpg 160w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.7-Dreamcatcher-546x1024.jpg 546w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.7-Dreamcatcher.jpg 640w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 160px) 100vw, 160px\" \/><\/em><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>While the aim of Puritan religion was redemption of the soul, the central theme of traditional Algonquian belief and expression was the attainment, conservation, and use of spiritual power. Your manitou came from your kinship and ancestry, your spirit guide or totem, personal visionary experiences or dreams, special talents or skills, and your luck or success in forming relationships or making a living. Spiritual power also came from touching sacred objects and being in sacred places, and from handling dangerous or unusual objects containing spiritual power (such as scalplocks taken as coups, poisonous snakes, quartz crystals or polished gemstones, and specially carved effigies of spirits in stone or clay). You could protect your spiritual power through right living, ritual observances, such as sweat lodge purification and the making of offerings to the spirits, honoring ancestors,\u00a0 and using amulets or personal medicine bundles. Power also came from communally shared expressions directed toward spirits, such as praying, chanting, dancing, and drumming\u2014the powwow [13].<\/p>\n<p>Colonists understood that Native Americans already had their own traditions of spiritualism and worship. John White drew Jamestown \u201cIndians Praying\u201d, for example\u2014Algonquians chanting and shaking rattles together around a sacred fire intended to invoke beneficial spirits and carry prayers or wishes to the Great Spirit. The Europeans at first identified with these expressions but later came to see them as invalid and ultimately as Satanic [14].<\/p>\n<p><em>\u201cIndians Praying\u201d \u00a0 \u00a0<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-546\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/debryWhite-sacred-fire-1590-209x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"395\" height=\"568\" \/><\/em><\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Life_and_Death\"><\/span>Life and Death<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>White\u2019s watercolors of Algonquians in Virginia shows how they stored and attended to bodies of their dead in special wigwams or raised smokehouse-like structures for several days. After funerary rites, the bodies\u2014no longer in rigor mortis and beginning to decompose\u2014were then \u201cflexed\u201d into a fetal position (sometimes referred to erroneously as a \u201csitting\u201d posture) and wrapped in woven fiber cloth (or cornstalk mats or birch bark in the north). Sometimes the flexed body was placed inside a specially made basket coffin and otherwise was covered with woven mats along with selected possessions as grave goods. A warrior, for example, might be buried with his arrows, quiver, bow, and coups. The body, mat bundle, or basket coffin was then interred in the ground in a communal unmarked earthen mound or in a stone chamber in an upland area designated as sacred. In some groups, bodies were later ceremonially disinterred, defleshed, and the bones painted with red ochre, bundled together, and reburied in ossuaries [15].<\/p>\n<p><em>Algonquian charnal house \u00a0\u00a0<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-542\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.9-Charnal-202x300.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"319\" height=\"474\" srcset=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.9-Charnal-202x300.png 202w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.9-Charnal.png 344w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 319px) 100vw, 319px\" \/><\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>\u00a0<\/em>Archaeological evidence confirms that early Algonquian burials in the Northeast were placed on north- or northeast-facing level ground or in low mounds in sandy or otherwise easily-dug soil overlooking a body of water\u2014a river, lake, or the sea. Bodies were placed flexed on the side, facing either east, with the feet facing east to facilitate passage to the spirit world, or facing southwest, where the ancestors of Late Woodland immigrants resided. In the Algonquian medicine wheel, north represented (among other things) the wisdom and spirituality of old age and east represented rebirth. The presence of burial grounds supports the likely presence of permanent or regular seasonal habitation sites.<\/p>\n<p>In Agawam and elsewhere, some burials were exhumed by colonists and paraded as an act of disrespect, as happened with Masconomet\u2019s remains until citizens intervened. Native American gravesites have been found in many parts of Essex County, including Andover, Beverly, Salem, Haverhill, Georgetown, Newbury, Ipswich, Hamilton, Gloucester, Manchester, Rowley, and Salisbury. The most extensive finds have been made in Marblehead, like Ipswich the likely site of a large permanent village by the time of English contact [16]. Today the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act protects Indigenous burials from being disturbed in any way and mandates the return of any remains and grave goods or sacred objects from museum collections. Some Native Americans today would object to my even talking about this subject, and for this I apologize. I mean no disrespect.<\/p>\n<p>Philip Freneau (1752-1832), a romantic poet of the Revolutionary period, was impressed with the spirituality of Native American burials. In his 1787 poem on the subject, he reimagines the flexed burial with grave goods as the individual \u201cseated\u201d with peers, preparing for a hunt, as in life. References to \u201csitting chiefs\u201d in colonial accounts and early American literature refer to mortuary remains. Freneau\u2019s poem also refers to a great rock and an old elm tree, additional features of the landscape that Algonquians would likely have chosen to site a burial ground. Here is a portion of the poem, \u201cThe Indian Burying Ground\u201d [17]:<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">In spite of all the learned have said,<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">I still my old opinion keep;<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">The posture that we give the dead,<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">Points out the soul&#8217;s eternal sleep.<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">Not so the ancients of these lands&#8211;<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">The Indian, when from life released,<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">Again is seated with his friends,<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">And shares again the joyous feast.<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">His imaged birds, and painted bowl,<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">And venison, for a journey dressed,<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">Bespeak the nature of the soul,<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">Activity, that knows no rest.<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">His bow, for action ready bent,<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">And arrows, with a head of bone,<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">Can only mean that life is spent,<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">And not the finer essence gone.<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">Thou, stranger, that shalt come this way,<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">No fraud upon the dead commit,<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">Yet, marking the swelling turf, and say,<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">They do not lie, but here they sit.<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">Here, still a lofty rock remains,<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">On which the curious eye may trace<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">(Now wasted half by wearing rains)<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">The fancies of a ruder race.<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">Here, still an aged elm aspires,<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">Beneath whose far-projecting shade<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">(And which the shepherd still admires)<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">The children of the forest played.<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Mounds_and_Chambers_in_Massachusetts\"><\/span>Mounds and Chambers in Massachusetts<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Unexcavated mounds and looted chambers are all that remain of pre-contact Native American burials in Massachusetts. Specific site locations are kept confidential to prevent further desecration. The undisturbed burial mound shown here is in northern Essex County, while the disturbed stone chamber is in southern Worcester County. Nipmuc descendants believe their ancestors built the chamber as an ossuary for their dead. An empty stone chamber in Rockport, called Rowe&#8217;s Tomb, likely served as an Indigenous ossuary. (Lt. Rowe was never buried there and it is fairly inaccessible, i.e., not some colonists&#8217; larder.)<\/p>\n<p><em>Mound in Gloucester<\/em><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-543 alignleft\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.10a-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"350\" height=\"262\" srcset=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.10a-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.10a.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px\" \/>Burial practices changed over time. Archaic period burials in permanent sand dunes and ledges above riverbanks, for example, predate Woodland period burials in clam middens and earthen mounds on upland terraces. Funerary practices simplified, especially as a consequence of epidemics, when large numbers of dead taxed tradition. Ultimately, single Christian-style burials without headstones replaced flexed individual burials, which in turn had replaced family or group burials in chambers or mounds [18].<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>In Cape Ann and Essex, more than 50 Native burials have been discovered and reported over the past 300 years. Add to that the unreported, as well as undiscovered, graves that were destroyed or are still here. Pawtucket skeletons were taken from known sites in Annisquam, Bay View, Dogtown, Wingaersheek, Castleview, Coffin Beach, Manchester-by-the-Sea, Argilla Road in Ipswich, Coles Island, Hog (Choate) Island, and Castle Neck, for example, and many more from sites in Ipswich north and Salem-Beverly south. As noted earlier, today burials are protected by NAGPRA, the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990. As a consequence of this legislation, many skeletal remains and grave goods have been returned to tribal councils for ceremonial reburial in sacred ground [19].<\/p>\n<p><em>&#8220;Rowe&#8217;s Tomb&#8221; in Rockport<\/em><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1504 alignleft\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Rowes-Tomb-223x300.jpeg\" alt=\"\" width=\"243\" height=\"327\" srcset=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Rowes-Tomb-223x300.jpeg 223w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Rowes-Tomb-762x1024.jpeg 762w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Rowes-Tomb-768x1032.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Rowes-Tomb-300x403.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Rowes-Tomb-850x1142.jpeg 850w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Rowes-Tomb.jpeg 938w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 243px) 100vw, 243px\" \/><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1506\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1506\" style=\"width: 365px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1506\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Mound-in-Newburyport-300x225.jpeg\" alt=\"\" width=\"365\" height=\"274\" srcset=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Mound-in-Newburyport-300x225.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Mound-in-Newburyport-1024x767.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Mound-in-Newburyport-768x575.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Mound-in-Newburyport-1536x1151.jpeg 1536w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Mound-in-Newburyport-850x637.jpeg 850w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Mound-in-Newburyport.jpeg 1731w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 365px) 100vw, 365px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1506\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Mound in Newburyport<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1505\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1505\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1505\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Mound-in-Salisbury-300x198.jpeg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"198\" srcset=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Mound-in-Salisbury-300x198.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Mound-in-Salisbury-1024x675.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Mound-in-Salisbury-768x506.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Mound-in-Salisbury-1536x1012.jpeg 1536w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Mound-in-Salisbury-350x230.jpeg 350w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Mound-in-Salisbury-850x560.jpeg 850w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Mound-in-Salisbury.jpeg 2001w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1505\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Mound in Salisbury<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Based on descriptions written by Roger Williams and others, Algonquians in New England had less elaborate funerary practices than those in Virginia. According to a second-hand colonial account of an Agawam (Pawtucket) funeral in Ipswich during Masconomet\u2019s time [20]:<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">When the mourners came to the grave, they laid the body near by, then sat down and lamented. He observed successive tears on the cheeks of old and young. After the body was laid in the grave, they made a second lamentation; then spread the mat, on which the deceased had died, over the grave; put the dish there, in which he had eaten, and hung a coat of skin on an adjacent tree. This coat none touched, but allowed it to consume with the dead. The relatives of the person, thus buried, had their faces blacked, as a sign of mourning.<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Mourning_Paint\"><\/span>Mourning Paint<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><em>Tantasqua Graphite Mine in Sturbridge<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-545 alignleft\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Figure-7.12-Mine.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"309\" height=\"232\" \/>\u00a0<\/em>The blacking worn by the Agawam mourners was possibly obtained from a mine in Middleton or was traded for from the Tantasqua (or Tantiusques) graphite mine in Sturbridge, MA\u2014today a historic 57-acre open space reservation. Black face paint for mourning\u2014a commodity in great demand in New England trade\u2014was made from graphite (carbon) that the Nipmuc mined, and the mine is still there on Rte. 124 and Lead Mine Pond Rd. The carbon was powdered and mixed with animal fat to make black greasepaint. Algonquians used red greasepaint, from iron oxide or powdered hematite and animal fat, as warpaint. White paint was made from calcite dust and kaolin clay. In 1636 the governor of Ipswich, John Winthrop Jr. bought Tantasqua from the Nipmuc. Other native mines he acquired around that time for the Massachusetts Bay Colony included various bog iron pits, including the one in West Gloucester, and a native copper mine in Topsfield [21].<\/p>\n<p><em>Colonial depiction of an Agawam burial<\/em><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-241 alignleft\" src=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/04\/Funeral-300x284.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"392\" height=\"371\" srcset=\"https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/04\/Funeral-300x284.jpg 300w, https:\/\/capeannhistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/04\/Funeral.jpg 384w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 392px) 100vw, 392px\" \/>As noted in a previous section, this colonial depiction of an Agawam burial shows relatives mourning as they place a body on its side to be flexed and wrapped in a woven fiber mat prior to burial in the earth [22]. The shaman kneels at the left under an oak tree, regarded as sacred, performing a funerary rite, interceding with the spirits on behalf of the spirit of the deceased and aiding the deceased\u2019s passage to afterlife in the skyworld. After the mourning period the people will take great care not speak the deceased\u2019s name, so as not to call back the spirit or impede its passage to the skyworld. In the picture the mourners\u2019 dress reflects Puritan influence.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Considering that this is how the Algonquians in Essex County made sense of their world, we now must ask, how exactly did they lose their land? And what is the real story of the founding of Gloster Plantation?<\/p>\n<h2><\/h2>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Notes_and_References\"><\/span>Notes and References<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>1.\u00a0 Contemporary works describing Algonquian religion include Kathleen Bragdon\u2019s <em>Native People of Southern New England, 1500-1650 <\/em>(1999)<em>, <\/em>Robert Hall\u2019s 1997 book, <em>An Archaeology of the Soul: North American Indian Belief and Ritual, <\/em>and William Simmons\u2019 <em>Spirit of the New England Tribes: Indian History and Folklore 1620-1984<\/em>(1984). Algonquians and Christianity is the subject of Chapter 8 of this book. For an anthropological perspective on Algonquian resistance to Christianity in the 17<sup>th<\/sup>Century and an explanation of the manitou concept, see Neal Salisbury\u2019s 1982 <em>Manitou and Providence: Indians, Europeans, and the making of New England 1500-1643.<\/em>See also the 1983 review of his book by Alden T. Vaughn in <em>The New England Quarterly (54)<\/em>, and Salisbury\u2019s 2003 article in <em>Ethnohistory<\/em>50 (2): \u201cEmbracing Ambiguity: Native Peoples and Christianity in Seventeenth-Century North America\u201d. Colonial sources on Algonquian religion include Roger Williams, William Bradford, Edward Winslow, Thomas Morton, John Winthrop, John Eliot, Daniel Gookin, and other 17<sup>th<\/sup>and early 18<sup>th<\/sup>Century observers, referenced earlier in this book. See, for example, Karle Schleiff\u2019s article, Stoneworks, Corn and Calendars, regarding Bartholomew\u2019s Gosnold\u2019s observations of native sun watching in 1602, at http:\/\/ancientlights.org.html.<\/p>\n<p>2.\u00a0Authentic expressions of magic realism in Algonquian spiritualism appear in early native texts. See especially the stream-of-consciousness-like account of Joseph Nicolar (1893), published in 2007 as <em>The Life and Traditions of the Red Man: A Rediscovered Treasure of Native American Literature<\/em>, edited by Annette Kolodny and Charles Norman Shaw. See alsoClara Sue Kidwell\u2019s article, Ethnoastronomy as the Key to Human Intellectual Development and Social Organization. In <em>Native Voices: American Indian Identity and Resistance<\/em>(2003). For an appreciation of the concept of ceremonial time in Algonquian culture, see John Hanson Mitchell\u2019s 1984 book, <em>Ceremonial Time: Fifteen Thousand Years on One Square Mile<\/em>, and a review of this book in 1987 by Curtiss Hoffman in the <em>Bridgewater Review<\/em>5 (2), available online at http:\/\/vc.bridgew.edu\/br_rev\/vol5\/iss2\/16\/.<\/p>\n<p>3.\u00a0Sources on animism and animatism include Part 23 of the <em>Encyclopedia of Religion<\/em>(Hastings, 2003)\u00a0 and Graham Harvey\u2019s 2005 book, <em>Animism: Respecting the Living World<\/em>. For an example of the pervasiveness of animistic beliefs, read an in-depth study by Michel-Gerald Boutet, The Great Long Tailed Serpent: An Iconographical study of the serpent in Middle Woodland Algonquian culture (2011), at http:\/\/www.academia.edu\/3537441\/The_Snake_motif_in_Algonquian_Culture.\u00a0Classic ethnographic works on Algonquian shamanism include Frank G. Speck\u2019s Penobscot Shamanism, in <em>Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association <\/em>6 (1919) and Frederick Johnson\u2019s Notes on Micmac Shamanism, in <em>Primitive Man <\/em>16 (1943). See also William S. Simmons\u2019 Southern New England Shamanism: An Ethnographic Reconstruction, in <em>Papers of the Algonquian Conference<\/em>7 (1976).<\/p>\n<p>4.\u00a0The chart in this chapter of selected Algonquian spirit names with English translations is from English and French missionary data on the Narraganset, Massachuset, Nipmuc, Abenaki, and Maliseet, as presented in the work of Frank Waabu O\u2019Brien (Moondancer), and Julianne Jennings (StrongWoman). See their 2007 book, <em>ACulturalHistoryof the NativePeoplesof SouthernNewEngland:Voicesfrom Pastand Present<\/em>(BauuPress). Note that my chart omits the diacritical marks and alternative spellings in the original work, which may be recovered as desired from \u201cSpirit Names and Religious Vocabulary\u201d at http:\/\/www.bigorrin.org\/waabu10.htm.<\/p>\n<p>5.\u00a0The germinal work on Algonquian ceremonial landscapes is by James Mavor and Byron Dix in <em>Manitou: The Sacred Landscape of New England\u2019s Native Civilization<\/em>(1989). See also Edwin C. Ballard and James W. Mavor, Jr., 2006, Case for the use of above surface stone constructs in a Native American ceremonial landscape in the Northeast, <em>NEARA Journal<\/em>40 (1), and Edward L. Bell, Discerning Native Placemaking: Archaeologies and Histories of the Den Rock Area, Lawrence and Andover, Massachusetts, <em>Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of Connecticut<\/em>75 (2013). The solar calendar at Pole Hill (Sunset Hill) in Riverview, Gloucester, is presented in a 2014 paper by Mary Ellen Lepionka and Mark Carlotto, Evidence of a Native Solar Observatory in Gloucester, Massachusetts, in the <em>Bulletin of the Massachusetts Archaeological Society<\/em>76 (1). For other examples of solar observatories in New England, see articles by Kenneth C. Leonard Jr.: Calendric Keystone? <em>Archaeoastronomy<\/em>10 (1987) and Identification and Preliminary Analysis of a Late Woodland Ceremonial Site in Southeastern Massachusetts, <em>Bulletin of the Massachusetts Archaeological Society<\/em>71 (1) (2010); William Hranicky\u2019s 2001 article, Difficult Run Petroglyphs: A Prehistoric Solar Observatory in the Potomac River Valley of Virginia, <em>Quarterly Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of Virginia <\/em>56 (2); Dix and Mavor\u2019s Two Possible Calendar Sites in Vermont, in <em>Archaeoastronomy in the Americas <\/em>(1981); Tim Fohl\u2019s\u00a0Integrated Wetland-Dry Land Features with Astronomical Associations, in the <em>Bulletin of the Massachusetts Archaeological Society <\/em>71:1 (2010); Edwin C. Ballard\u2019s For Want of a Nail: An Analysis of the Function of Some Horseshoe or U-Shaped Stone Structures. <em>Bulletin of the Massachusetts Archaeological Society<\/em>60 (2) (1999); Frederick W. Martin <em>et al.<\/em>, Archaeo-Astronomical Prospecting at the Moose Hill Stone Chambers. <em>Archaeology of Eastern North America <\/em>40 (2012); and Michael S. Nassaney, The Significanceof the Turners FallsLocality in Connecticut River Archaeology, in <em>The Archaeological Northeast<\/em>, Mary Ann Levine, Kenneth E. Sassaman, and Michael S. Nassaney, eds. (1999). In 2013, because of its significance as a native solar calendar and ceremonial landscape, the Turners Falls site was listed in the National Register of Historic Places.<\/p>\n<p>6. Useful general sources on archaeoastronomy are John Edwin Wood\u2019s <em>Sun, Moon, and Standing Stones<\/em>(1978), George E. Lankford\u2019s <em>Reachable Stars: Patterns in the Ethnoastronomy of Eastern North America <\/em>(2007), and William Tyler Olcott\u2019s classic <em>Star Lore of all Ages: A Collection of Myths, Legends, and Facts concerning the Constellations of the Northern Hemisphere <\/em>(1911)<em>.<\/em>Key works on archaeoastronomy in the civilizations of the Southwest, Mexico, and Mesoamerica include John A. Eddy, Astronomical Alignment of the Big Horn Medicine Wheel. <em>Science <\/em>174 (1974); Munro S. Edmonson, <em>The Book of the Year: Middle American Calendrical Systems <\/em>(1988); Anthony Aveni, <em>Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico <\/em>(1980); and Stephen\u00a0 C. McCluskey, Historical Archaeoastronomy: The Hopi Example, in <em>Archaeoastronomy in the New World<\/em>, A.F. Aveni, ed. (1982). Direct linkages between New England and Mesoamerican ceremonial landscapes were proposed in 2006 by Timothy Fohl and Kenneth Leonard in a paper, Similarities of Ceremonial Structures in New England and Mesoamerica, presented at the 73<sup>rd<\/sup>Annual Meeting of the Eastern States Archaeological Federation jointly with the Massachusetts Archaeological Society and The New England Antiquities Research Association in Fitchburg, MA. For the significance of particular constellations in Native American ceremonial landscapes, see, for example, Glenn N. Kreisberg\u2019s Serpent of the North: The Overlook Mountain\/Draco Correlation (2010), at http:\/\/www.grahamhancock.com\/forum\/KreisbergG5.php; and the now classic works of Lynn Cesi, Watchers of the Pleiades: Ethnoastronomy Among Native Cultivators in Northeastern North America, in <em>Ethnohistory <\/em>25 (4) (1978) and Von Del Chamberlain, <em>When the Stars Came Down to Earth: Cosmology of the Skidi Pawnee Indians of North America <\/em>(1982)<em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>7.\u00a0The \u201cThanksgiving\u201d picture is an engraving by Theodore de Bry (1590) of a drawing that first appeared in Thomas Hariot\u2019s <em>A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia<\/em>(1588). Having feast days for giving thanks was traditional in Algonquian culture, and thanksgiving feasts were conducted two or more times a year. The notion that there was a \u201cfirst Thanksgiving\u201d at Plymouth Plantation is an ethnocentric accounting based on William Bradford\u2019s journal, now embedded in the American mind. Some surviving Native American communities make a point of not celebrating the Thanksgiving designated as a national holiday.<\/p>\n<p>8.\u00a0The lunar calendar presented here is a compilation from diverse sources based on French and English ethnolinguistic data for northern and southern New England and Canada, including interpretations by Christine Sioui Wawanoloath (http:\/\/westernabenaki.com\/dictionary\/moons.php), Marge Bruchac (http:\/\/www.vermontfolklifecenter.org\/childrens-books\/malians-song\/additional_resources\/seasons_moons.pdf), and the Old Farmers Almanac (http:\/\/www.almanac.com\/content\/full-moon-names).<\/p>\n<p>9.\u00a0Many communities in New England have ethnohistorical accounts as well as physical examples of Native American rocking or balanced stones, cairns, effigy boulders, rock shelters, petroglyphs, and other stoneworks, some authenticated as Native American in origin and others shrouded in mystery or controversy. Mary and James Gage have controversially attempted to classify and describe native stoneworks in <em>Handbook of Stone Structures in Northeastern United States<\/em>(2008). See also Mary Gage\u2019s article, New England Native American Spirit Structures, in the Spring 2013 issue of the <em>Bulletin of the Massachusetts Archaeological Society\u00a0<\/em>74 (1). See also articles and photographs by Peter Waksman, for example, at http:\/\/indianrockpiles.weetu.com\/articles\/IndianRockPiles.html<\/p>\n<p>10.\u00a0Agassiz Rock in Manchester-by-the-Sea is featured as the cover photo of the Mavor and Dix book <em>Manitou<\/em>. Others who argue for Native American skill in creating monumental stoneworks that have survived to this day include Noel Ring, Ken Goss, and Ken Leonard in their paper, Northeast Native North American Astronomy and Engineering, read at the Eastern States Archaeological Federation Annual Meeting on October 31, 2013 (South Portland, ME). Skeptics\u2019 views are represented in Kenneth L. Feder\u2019s <em>Encyclopedia of Dubious Archaeology: From Atlantis to the Walam Olum<\/em>(2011). Walam Olum is a purported and much debated native pictographic text expressing Lenape ancient history and mythology. Feder also includes Mystery Hill in Salem, NH, and Gungywump Swamp in Groton, CT, as examples of dubious archaeology, mainly because of documented or assumed tampering with those sites over the centuries and interpretations that are not evidence-based. See David P. Barron and Sharon Mason\u2019s book, <em>The Greater Gungywamp: A Guidebook<\/em>(1994), David Goudsward and Robert E. Stone\u2019s <em>America\u2019s Stonehenge: The Mystery Hill Story.<\/em>(2003), and Mary Gage\u2019s <em>America\u2019s Stonehenge Deciphered<\/em>(2006). Other sources may be found on the \u201cAmerica\u2019s Stonehenge\u201d website at http:\/\/www.mysteryhillnh.info\/html\/bibliography.html.<\/p>\n<p>11.\u00a0See Nicholas Campion\u2019s <em>Astrology and Cosmology in the World\u2019s Religions<\/em>(2012) and Frank G. Speck\u2019s descriptions in Penobscot Transformer Tales, <em>International Journal of American Linguistics<\/em>1 (1918): https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/jstor-1262934; Wawenock Myth Texts from Maine, in <em>Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution:<\/em>43 (2) (1928); and Penobscot Tales and Religious Beliefs, <em>Journal of American Folklore<\/em>6 (1935). For an appreciation of the role of dreams and dreaming in Algonquian culture and the significantly contrasting world views of colonists and Indians, see Ann Marie Plane\u2019s <em>Dreams and the Invisible World in Colonial New England: Colonists, Indians, and the Seventeenth Century<\/em>(2014). Among the many sources for particular Algonquian myths and legends are William Simmons\u2019 papers, Return of the Timid Giant: Algonquian Legends of Southern New England, <em>Algonquian Conference<\/em>13 (1982); and Genres in New England Indian Folklore, <em>Algonquian Conference<\/em>15 (1984). A classic source is Charles G. Leland\u2019s <em>Algonquin Legends of New England<\/em>(1884). You can read stories about Gluscap\u2019s (Glooskap\u2019s) exploits at http:\/\/www.native-languages.org\/glooskap.<\/p>\n<p>12.\u00a0The creation myth presented here appears in Gerard Rancourt Tsonakwa and Tolaikia Wapitaska\u2019s The Dreamer, in <em>Welcome the Caribou Man<\/em><em>: A Catalogue of Images and Stories from the San Diego Museum of Man:<\/em>12-13 (1992).<\/p>\n<p>13.\u00a0Acquiring spiritual power or protection through the touching of sacred, dangerous, or emblematic objects is an example of \u201ccontagious magic\u201d. Contagious magic is also used in witchcraft to cause harm or good to a person by manipulating associated objects, such as hair clippings, fingernail parings, or articles of clothing. Cultural anthropologists contrast contagious magic with \u201csympathetic\u201d or \u201cimitative\u201d magic, in which rituals, such as fertility rites, serve to ensure that \u201clike produces like\u201d. Colonial perceptions of Algonquian spiritual practices and the social institution of the powwow are taken up in greater detail in Chapter 8.<\/p>\n<p>14.\u00a0John White\u2019s watercolors and Theodore deBry\u2019s engravings of them depict many aspects of Algonquian life in Delaware, Virginia, and North Carolina. White\u2019s depictions of Indians praying, an Algonquian charnal house, and others are in the British Museum. See Paul Hulton and David Beers Quinn,<em>The American Drawings of John White 1577-1590, Vol. II, Reproductions of the originals in colour facsimile and of derivatives in monochrome <\/em>(1964). For an appreciation of the historical and ethnographic importance of these images, see Lisa Heuvel\u2019s 2010 article, Looking with Clearer Vision: The Significance of John White\u2019s Watercolors, at the website of the Jamestown and Yorktown Settlement &amp; Victory Center: http:\/\/www.historyisfun.org\/Significance-of-John-White.htm.<\/p>\n<p>15.\u00a0A principal source on Algonquian burial practices is Erik Seeman\u2019s <em>Death in the New World: Cross-Cultural Encounters 1492-1800<\/em>(2011). For particular archaeological reconstructions, see, for example, Francis P. McManamon, James W. Bradley, and Ann L. Magennis\u2019 CRM Study No. 17 (1986), <em>The Indian Neck Ossuary<\/em>(North Atlantic Regional Office, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior) and Gary D. Shaffer\u2019s Nanticoke Indian Burial Practices: Challenges for Archaeological Interpretation, in <em>Archaeology of Eastern North America<\/em>33 (2005).<\/p>\n<p>16.\u00a0A definitive, if not up to date, source on burials in Massachusetts is Mary J. Haaker\u2019s An Annotated Bibliography of Late Woodland Burials in Massachusetts, in <em>Archaeological Quarterly<\/em>6 (Fall 1984). Documented burial mounds survive in Salisbury, Newburyport, Nashoba, Lakeville, Cape Ann, and other sites in Massachusetts, and Indian burial grounds have been preserved in various localities on Cape Cod and the islands. Many 17<sup>th<\/sup>century colonial graveyards have native burials incorporated in them or on a perimeter.<\/p>\n<p>17.\u00a0Read the rest of Freneau\u2019s poem at https:\/\/www.poetryfoundation.org\/poems\/46094\/the-indian-burying-ground.<\/p>\n<p>18.\u00a0Indian burials on Cape Ann and the surrounding area have been reported periodically since the Civil War Period. See, for example, F. W. Putnam, On Indian remains in Essex County, <em>Proceedings of the Essex Institute <\/em>5:186 (1867). Reports of burials in the media include, for example, the <em>Gloucester Daily Times<\/em>, November 13, 1940: Cape Ann Rich in Indian Relics Rotarians Told by N. Carleton Phillips.<\/p>\n<p>19.\u00a0For a full explanation of NAGPRA, see the National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. National NAGPRA (Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act): http:\/\/www.nps.gov\/nagpra\/INDEX.HTM. See also The Law and American Indian Grave Protection on the website of the Indian Burial and Sacred Grounds Watch at http:\/\/www.ibsgwatch.imagedjinn.com\/learn\/massachusettslaw.htm. The Massachusetts Historical Commission has a paper on What To Do When Human Burials Are Accidentally Uncovered, at http:\/\/www.sec.state.ma.us\/mhc\/mhcpdf\/knowhow4.pdf.<\/p>\n<p>20.\u00a0The description and illustration of the Agawam burial originally came from Roger Williams\u2019 1643 work, <em>A Key into the Language of America<\/em>, accessible online at \u00a0\u00a0https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/keyintolanguageo02will. The description was widely copied, and a similar account appears in the travel correspondence of John Dunton, an English bookseller, in which he claims to have witnessed an Agawam burial near Wonasquam on Cape Ann in 1686 (See Letters Written from New England. <em>Prince Society Publications Issue 4 <\/em>(1966). It is unknown whether Dunton was reporting what he saw or repeating what Williams wrote.<\/p>\n<p>21. \u00a0The Tale of Tantiusques 1644-1909, is in <em>The Winthrop Papers<\/em>(Reel 38 Box OS2) in the <em>Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society<\/em>in Boston. A description of the Indians\u2019 copper mines in Topsfield, by Mrs. G.\u00a0Warren Towne, appears in <em>The Historical Collections of the Topsfield Historical Society, <\/em>2 (1892). For further perspective of Native American mining, see Mary Ann Levine\u2019s papers:Native copper, hunter-gatherers, and northeastern prehistory (1999), at\u2028http:\/\/scholarworks.umass.edu\/dissertations\/AAI9709620; and Native Copper in the Northeast: An Overview of Potential Sources Available to Indigenous Peoples, in <em>The Archaeological Northeast<\/em>(1999).<\/p>\n<p>22.\u00a0The original of this etching is in the John Carter Brown Library at Brown University in Providence, RI.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>The Algonquians were matter-of-fact, even sanguine, about matters of life and death\u2014and as red in tooth and claw, so to speak, as their prey and their human enemies. 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